My own pleasure is the only thing that matters.
I would be willing to take a punch if it meant that someone I did not like would receive two punches.
If I ever tormented others, I would feel strong remorse.
The website darkfactor.org asks whether you agree or disagree with these kinds of statements. Those who complete the questionnaire receive their personal D-factor score at the end. This is a measure of one's “evil tendencies” compared to those of other people. It shows, on a scale of 1 to 5, how strongly someone tends to pursue their own interests, even if it harms others. Values above 3.5 are considered problematic. From this threshold upwards, very pronounced antisocial behaviour is likely and clinically relevant dysfunctioning becomes notably more frequent. To date, more than 2.5 million people worldwide have completed the questionnaire. A diagram showing the results of all participants to date reveals a clear cluster around the middle of the spectrum, with values around 2.3, but also a wide range of scores. One could say: Most people are not very malicious.
All dark traits have one thing in common
The concept of the D-factor may sound simplistic at first, but it is the result of extensive research. „Our starting point was an observation that had long been neglected in personality research,“ explains Benjamin Hilbig, who developed the concept alongside Morten Moshagen and Ingo Zettler, publishing a popular science book on the subject. “Until now, single, highly specific problematic tendencies have been distinguished from one another and given different names: selfishness, malice, narcissism, sadism, psychopathy and many more. However, these personality traits have much more in common than sets them apart – for example, someone who is narcissistic often also has sadistic, selfish, and psychopathic tendencies.“ As such, the seemingly strict distinctions are largely misleading. The question is rather: “What do all dark traits have in common? What makes them evil, so to speak?“
Typical: Everyone else is evil
In search of this 'evil core', which the researchers refer to as the D-factor, they examined the results of common tests such as those for narcissism, sadism or psychopathy. Using statistical methods, they proved that these traits have extensive overlap – i.e. they ‘contain’ a lot of the D-factor – and that they actually have nothing else in common beyond that.
So, what is this major commonality? “In addition to the tendency to harm others for one's own benefit, certain beliefs play a central role. These are attitudes that people use to justify their antisocial and unethical behaviour,“ Hilbig explains. "A particularly clear indication is deep-seated distrust, even paranoid beliefs. People with a high D-factor are convinced that others want to exploit them. Such an attitude makes it more likely that one's own problematic behaviour will subjectively seem justified or even necessary. Another typical attitude is cynicism: ‘If everyone else is behaving unethically, then I can do so, too.’”
Not everything is included in the D-factor
However, not everything is part of the D-factor. “In addition to grandiosity and excessive striving for superiority, which are subsumed by the D-factor, narcissism also includes the aspect of ’vulnerability‘. But this oversensitivity is not what makes narcissism evil,“ explains Hilbig. According to him, narcissism is socially problematic because of the aspects it shares with other 'dark' traits: a negative view of others and a willingness to harm people ruthlessly and without remorse. Based on this insight, the researchers gradually condensed a catalogue of around 200 common questions from personality research into statements that are particularly indicative of the D-factor. The result is a detailed version comprising 70 statements and a short version comprising 16 statements.
Reality confirmed the measurement theory: Using data from the Danish population register, the researchers showed that people with a high D-factor are more likely to be convicted of crimes. “Large-scale studies and experiments also show that the higher the D-factor, the more likely people are to exhibit behaviour that is socially or ethically problematic,“ reports the researcher. “For example, in an experiment in which participants privately rolled dice and received ten euros for a reported 6, those with a high D-factor lied more often (to receive the money). In other studies, they distributed sums of money between themselves and others much more unfairly (to their own benefit), or even gave up a little money to cause others to lose more. In short, the measurement from this questionnaire can also predict actual antisocial and unethical behaviour.“
Beware of sweeping judgements
The online test provides researchers with valuable data from people around the globe. However, Hilbig warns against jumping to conclusions when interpreting this data. “Poorer people are no more (or less) evil than richer people. Smarter people are no more (or less) evil than less intelligent people!“
On average, men have a higher D-factor than women. “But that's just a statistical observation for now. It's like body height. Men are taller than women on average. Of course, there are also women who are taller than many men. Clearly, not all men are antisocial, nor are all women nice(er). Furthermore, differences in responses to questionnaires have a lot to do with social expectations and role models, not just biology.”
The data also shows that the D-factor decreases with a person’s age. One possible explanation for this is that social roles often change over the course of a lifetime, with many people having to take on more social responsibility through parenthood, family and work commitments. “The D-factor decreases to roughly the same extent for most people,“ says Hilbig. “As such, their relative position in comparison to others remains fairly stable over many years.“
Although there are differences between countries, Hilbig emphasizes that the differences between men and women within a country are usually greater than the differences between different countries or regions. Indeed, nationality or origin per se does not indicate how 'evil' someone is. It is the respective social circumstances that are much more consequential. “Those who are confronted with widespread corruption, no rule of law, pervasive violent crime, and existential poverty need a certain level of the D-factor in order to survive.“ Where such adverse circumstances prevail – the technical term for which is aversive societal conditions – this leads to a higher average D in the long term.
Environment influences personality – and vice versa
One’s environment therefore plays an important role. “Like any personality trait, the D-factor can adapt; it can change. This is especially true of average societal values over long periods of time. However, a person's individual D-factor can also change, albeit within the scope of their predisposition,“ explains Hilbig. “Similar to intelligence, a person can become smarter through training, but only to a certain extent. There is a genetic component, which means that even with the best training, someone with a lower IQ will rarely become the next Einstein.”
Conversely, personality influences the environment in which people find themselves, such as their profession. The data available to researchers so far does not prove that high D-factor scores are more common in management positions. However, other studies have shown that traits such as narcissism and Machiavellianism – i.e. the manipulative striving for power – are more common in positions of power, Hilbig explains. „It certainly depends heavily on the particular sector. In social professions such as nursing, for example, the proportion of people with a high D-factor is demonstrably lower, presumably because caring for others is not a priority for them. If they do work in the social sector, they are unlikely to be particularly successful – in other professions, a tendency and willingness to exploit others can certainly get you further.“
Good times for bad people?
If environment and personality are interdependent, what effect does omnipresent conflict, aggression, and problematic behaviour have on us? “When prominent, powerful people exemplify and reflect the idea that a high D-factor is normal, it gradually increases the D-factor in all of us, albeit not equally,“ says Hilbig. “The mechanism of looking at the powerful and influential and imitating their behaviour is deeply rooted in us as social learning. Even as children in the schoolyard, we observe who is in charge and seek to imitate corresponding behaviour.“
In all likelyhood, digital information worlds fuel this process. On social media, unlike in real life, the potential for distortion is much greater. “In my online world, I can completely maneuver myself into a corner where I only see what confirms my worldview. If this repeatedly reinforced worldview tells me that ‘everyone is evil’ or ‘we just need to get rid of some group of people or another to be better off’, the beliefs that form an essential part of the D-factor become reinforced.”
Tool for self-reflection
A distorted perception of reality is always dangerous, emphasises the psychology professor. “Because then, for example, I misjudge the risk that other people pose.“ Those who are constantly told that others are evil or exploitative become distrustful, which not only increases their own D-factor - such a worldview also makes people unhappy – and sometimes even ill.
Curious about the test? “It's always helpful to understand yourself better in comparison to others,“ says Hilbig, encouraging people to fill out the questionnaire. If the score is high, the result may offer important insights. “Those who are convinced that others only want to exploit them and therefore believe that they have the right to behave antisocially or unethically may change this attitude when they realise that others are not so bad after all. Most people are actually quite nice.“
Prof. Dr.
Benjamin E.
Hilbig
Professor for Experimental Psychology & Personality
"I want to understand why some people behave in an antisocial and unethical manner—and others do not."
Prof. Benjamin E. Hilbig, PhD, studied psychology at the University of Bonn and received his doctorate from the University of Mannheim in 2009.Since 2014, he holds a professorship in the Department of Psychology at the RPTU University in Landau where he heads the Experimental Psychology & Personality Lab. His research focuses on ethical and social decisions, personality traits, and research methods.
Forscherprofil
Would you like to explore this topic in more depth? Here is some further reading on the D factor:
Benjamin E. Hilbig, Morten Moshagen, Ingo Zettler: Dark Factor. Die Essenz des Bösen im Menschen. Pinguin-Verlag 2025.
Zettler, I., Lilleholt, L., Bader, M., Hilbig, B. E., & Moshagen, M. (2025). Aversive societal conditions explain differences in 'dark' personality across countries and US states. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122, e2500830122.
Hilbig, B. E., Moshagen, M., Thielmann, I., & Zettler, I. (2022). Making rights from wrongs: The crucial role of beliefs and justifications for the expression of aversive personality. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 151, 2730–2755.
Moshagen, M., Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2018). The dark core of personality. Psychological Review, 125, 656-688.
